Report on User Acceptance of Battery Swapping in Battery Electric Vehicles in Germany

Abstract

The adoption of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in Germany faces significant challenges, including limited user acceptance due to concerns about range, charging infrastructure, and cost. Battery swapping stations (BSS) present a promising solution to these barriers. This study, based on a representative online survey of 1,902 German individuals, evaluates the current obstacles to e-mobility, the potential of battery swapping to mitigate these issues, and the concerns related to battery swapping technology. Findings reveal that BEV-interested individuals view battery swapping positively as a problem solver, with BEV owners also recognizing its benefits. A discrete choice experiment indicates a willingness to pay an additional €56 per month for BEVs equipped with swapping technology compared to integrated battery systems.

Introduction

Despite increasing registrations of alternative drive systems, the transition to electromobility in Germany is hindered by persistent barriers, notably insufficient driving range, inadequate charging infrastructure, and high costs. These challenges impede progress towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) such as SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure), and SDG 13 (Climate Action).

Battery swapping stations (BSS) offer a rapid battery replacement alternative, comparable to conventional refueling, potentially alleviating range anxiety, reducing resource consumption, and lowering costs. This aligns with SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) by promoting efficient resource use and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) by enhancing urban mobility infrastructure.

However, challenges such as standardization, high initial investment, and battery ownership models remain. This study aims to investigate:

1. The strength of current barriers to e-mobility acceptance.
2. The potential of BSS technology to alleviate these barriers.
3. Concerns in Germany that may hinder BSS adoption.
4. Attributes of swappable batteries for which users are willing to pay, considering socio-demographic factors.

Literature Review

Factors Influencing Acceptance of E-Mobility in Germany

• Environmental awareness significantly influences BEV acceptance, supporting SDG 13 and SDG 15 (Life on Land).
• Range anxiety, cost, and charging infrastructure remain key obstacles.
• Private charging availability is critical, especially in rural and suburban areas, linking to SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) by addressing regional disparities.
• Social value and transparent communication enhance consumer trust and acceptance.

Factors Influencing Acceptance of Swappable Batteries

• Studies in China highlight personal attitudes, knowledge, and perceived benefits as key predictors of BSS acceptance.
• Convenience, intuitive operation, and aesthetic design positively impact user experience.
• Concerns include safety, battery condition, liability, and costs.
• Socio-demographic factors such as gender, age, income, and residence influence adoption intentions.

These findings emphasize the importance of inclusive innovation and equitable access, supporting SDG 9 and SDG 10.

Methods

Survey Design and Dataset

A representative online survey was conducted in November 2023 with 1,902 participants, categorized into four groups based on BEV ownership and interest:

1. BEV owners (309 participants)
2. BEV considerers (740 participants)
3. Car considerers (593 participants)
4. BEV rejecters (260 participants)

The survey included information dissemination about BSS, knowledge testing, and a discrete choice experiment (DCE) to assess willingness to pay for BEVs with integrated versus swappable batteries.

Data Analysis

• Likert scales summarized attitudes and concerns.
• ANOVA and Tukey-Kramer tests assessed group differences.
• Conditional and mixed logit models analyzed DCE responses to estimate willingness to pay.

Results

Barriers to Acceptance of E-Mobility

Key barriers identified include high costs, resource consumption concerns, and insufficient charging infrastructure. BEV rejecters exhibited the strongest concerns, while BEV owners showed fewer reservations. These barriers relate to SDG 7, SDG 9, and SDG 12.

Battery Swapping as a Problem Solver

Participants, especially BEV considerers and owners, agreed that BSS could mitigate barriers such as safety concerns and charging availability. However, the perceived importance of vehicle range remains high.

Concerns About Battery Swapping Technology

Primary concerns include unclear liability for battery defects or damage during swapping, battery age and condition, operating costs, and potential queues at stations. Transparency and education can address many of these issues, supporting SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions) through enhanced consumer protection.

Willingness to Pay for Swappable Battery Technology

All groups demonstrated a higher willingness to pay for BEVs with swappable batteries compared to integrated batteries, with BEV considerers and car considerers showing the greatest difference. Willingness to pay was influenced by personal attitudes, income, age, and home charging availability. This reflects the potential for BSS to support equitable access and affordability, aligning with SDG 10 and SDG 7.

Discussion and Conclusion

1. Barriers to E-Mobility Acceptance: Persisting barriers, especially cost and infrastructure limitations, hinder BEV adoption. Experience with BEVs reduces concerns, highlighting the need for awareness and education (SDG 4: Quality Education).
2. Role of Battery Swapping Stations: BSS are viewed as effective solutions to key barriers, particularly for potential new user groups, supporting SDG 9 and SDG 11.
3. Remaining Skepticism: Some users remain skeptical despite BSS benefits, indicating the need for continued engagement and trust-building (SDG 16).
4. Socio-Demographic Differences: Acceptance varies across demographics, underscoring the importance of inclusive policies to ensure equitable access (SDG 10).

Battery swapping technology complements existing charging infrastructure and offers system-wide benefits such as controlled charging and grid services, contributing to SDG 7 and SDG 13. However, large-scale deployment requires significant investment and policy support.

Future research should include economic and ecological assessments to balance benefits and costs, ensuring sustainable implementation aligned with the SDGs.

Data and Code Availability

The complete questionnaire and summarized results are publicly available in the supplementary materials. The full dataset can be accessed at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14993948. Data analysis utilized JMP software and R-Studio.

1. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Addressed or Connected

1. SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
   • The article discusses the expansion and availability of charging infrastructure for battery electric vehicles (BEVs), which relates to ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy.
   • Battery swapping stations (BSS) as innovative infrastructure contribute to energy accessibility and efficiency.
2. SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
   • The development and acceptance of battery swapping technology represent innovation in transport infrastructure.
   • Challenges such as standardizing battery designs and establishing swapping stations relate to building resilient infrastructure and fostering innovation.
3. SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
   • The article addresses urban and suburban mobility challenges and the role of BSS in promoting sustainable transport systems.
   • Private charging infrastructure and public charging availability affect urban sustainability.
4. SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
   • Concerns about resource consumption in battery production and the potential for BSS to reduce resource use by enabling smaller batteries are discussed.
   • Battery life management and recycling aspects are implied in battery ownership and swapping concerns.
5. SDG 13: Climate Action
   • The transition to BEVs and the acceptance of battery swapping technology contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transport.
   • Environmental awareness and perceived environmental benefits influence acceptance.

2. Specific Targets Under the Identified SDGs

1. SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
   • Target 7.2: Increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix.
   • Target 7.3: Double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency.
   • Target 7.a: Enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology.
2. SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
   • Target 9.1: Develop quality, reliable, sustainable, and resilient infrastructure.
   • Target 9.5: Enhance scientific research and upgrade technological capabilities.
3. SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
   • Target 11.2: Provide access to safe, affordable, accessible, and sustainable transport systems for all.
   • Target 11.6: Reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities.
4. SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
   • Target 12.2: Achieve sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources.
   • Target 12.5: Substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling, and reuse.
5. SDG 13: Climate Action
   • Target 13.2: Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies, and planning.

3. Indicators Mentioned or Implied to Measure Progress

1. SDG 7 Indicators
   • Proportion of population with access to electricity (implied through charging infrastructure availability).
   • Renewable energy share in total final energy consumption (implied via environmental benefits of BEVs and BSS).
   • Energy efficiency improvements (implied by reduced energy consumption due to smaller batteries and efficient swapping).
2. SDG 9 Indicators
   • Proportion of the population using sustainable transport (implied by BEV adoption rates and acceptance of BSS).
   • Research and development expenditure as a proportion of GDP (implied by innovation in battery swapping technology).
3. SDG 11 Indicators
   • Proportion of urban population with convenient access to public transport (implied by availability and accessibility of BSS and charging stations).
   • Air quality levels (implied by reduction in combustion-engine vehicle use).
4. SDG 12 Indicators
   • Material footprint, material footprint per capita, and material footprint per GDP (implied by resource consumption concerns and battery life management).
   • Waste generation per capita (implied by battery recycling and swapping practices).
5. SDG 13 Indicators
   • Greenhouse gas emissions per capita (implied by transition to BEVs and adoption of swapping technology).
   • Number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction strategies (implied by integration of climate measures in transport policies).

4. Table: SDGs, Targets and Indicators

Source: nature.com