Report on Travel App Adoption Intention Among Suburban Car Commuters and Park&Ride Users in Madrid Region

Introduction

The challenge of providing dense and frequent public transport in suburban areas contributes to car dependency in metropolitan outskirts. Park & Ride (P&R) facilities, introduced in low-density peripheries, aim to facilitate access to public transport for car users and reduce congestion in central areas. Technological advancements, such as Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS), have the potential to enhance the attractiveness and efficiency of P&R by integrating multiple transport options into a single mobile app platform.

Understanding the motivations behind travel app adoption among suburban car users is crucial for the success of MaaS and P&R policies. This study focuses on two commuter groups in the Madrid Metropolitan Region: daily P&R users and car-only users who drive the entire trip length. The objectives include:

1. Analyzing trip characteristics and latent constructs (technophilia, gain, hedonic, normative motives) of both groups.
2. Assessing travel app adoption potential and determinants in each group.
3. Providing recommendations to develop user-centered travel apps that promote sustainable transport and improve mobility management.

Context and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

This research aligns with several United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly:

• SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities – by promoting multimodal transport and reducing car dependency in suburban areas.
• SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure – through the development and adoption of innovative travel apps and MaaS platforms.
• SDG 13: Climate Action – by encouraging sustainable travel behaviors that reduce emissions.

Literature Review

Park & Ride Facilities

P&R facilities support sustainable modal shifts by reducing private vehicle use and increasing public transport patronage. Benefits include cost savings, travel time reduction, and lower congestion and pollution. However, challenges such as transfer penalties and induced car trips exist. Efficient P&R management requires regional coordination and monitoring, which can be enhanced by travel apps providing real-time information.

Travel App Adoption

Travel apps can promote sustainable travel by offering multimodal route planning and real-time information. Adoption is influenced by gain motives (cost/time savings), hedonic motives (entertainment), normative motives (social/environmental responsibility), and technophilia (affinity for technology). Factors such as age, education, and travel habits also affect adoption intention.

Methods

Study Area: Madrid Metropolitan Region

Madrid Metropolitan Region, with 6.8 million residents, features a central business district (CBD) surrounded by suburban and rural rings. Car ownership is high, and commuting trips from suburbs to the city center predominantly use private vehicles. The Aparca+T plan integrates P&R facilities with a regional MaaS app to improve sustainable mobility.

Survey Design and Data Collection

• A survey conducted in 2022 collected data on socio-economic characteristics, travel behavior, latent motivations, and location-specific variables from 6,350 respondents.
• Respondents were shown a prototype travel app with features such as real-time information, payment options, carbon footprint tracking, and social sharing.
• Data included geolocation of trip origins and destinations, enabling analysis of built environment and transport supply.

Analytical Approach

1. Respondents were divided into two groups: daily P&R users (231 respondents) and car-only users (231 matched respondents via propensity score matching to ensure comparability).
2. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) identified latent constructs related to app adoption motivation.
3. Ordinal logit models estimated determinants of travel app adoption intention for each group.

Results

Group Characteristics and Travel Patterns

• Both groups are socioeconomically similar but differ in travel behavior and trip destinations.
• P&R users mostly commute to Madrid CBD (65%), while car-only users have more dispersed destinations with 34% to the CBD.
• P&R users travel to more urbanized destinations with better public transport access, while car-only users live in denser areas but travel to less urbanized destinations.
• Trip times differ significantly: P&R users report shorter travel times (32 minutes) compared to car-only users (57 minutes), possibly due to congestion avoidance and parking convenience.

Latent Constructs from EFA

• P&R group: gain motives and technophilia are prominent; normative motives were not detected, suggesting existing sustainable travel behavior.
• Car-only group: hedonic and normative motives combined, indicating environmental concerns linked with social sharing and entertainment features in apps.

Determinants of Travel App Adoption Intention

• Adoption intention is high: 90% for P&R users and 81% for car-only users.
• Gain motives (e.g., travel cost reduction, reliable travel time) strongly influence adoption in both groups.
• For P&R users, technophilia and being female increase adoption likelihood; hedonic motives negatively affect it.
• For car-only users, longer car travel time, hedonic-normative motives, student status, and destination proximity to suburban rail stations positively influence adoption.
• Distance to Madrid CBD increases adoption intention among P&R users, highlighting the importance of targeting remote suburban residents.

Discussion

The study reveals substantial potential for travel app adoption among suburban car commuters and P&R users, supporting SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) by encouraging modal shifts towards public transport. The findings emphasize the complementary role of MaaS and P&R policies in promoting sustainable mobility.

Key insights include:

• Travel apps offering direct benefits such as trip predictability and real-time information are highly valued, aligning with SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure).
• Longer trips and greater distance from urban centers increase the likelihood of app adoption, suggesting that mobility policies should focus on peripheral areas to reduce car dependency.
• Environmental and social motivations influence car-only users, indicating openness to sustainable travel options, supporting SDG 13 (Climate Action).
• Group-specific strategies are necessary: promoting technophilia among P&R users and combining entertainment with environmental awareness for car-only users.

Conclusions

This report underscores the importance of integrating MaaS and P&R initiatives to enhance sustainable urban mobility in suburban regions. The high adoption intention of travel apps among suburban car users and P&R commuters indicates readiness for digital tools that support sustainable transport modes, contributing to the achievement of SDGs 9, 11, and 13.

Recommendations include:

• Developing user-centered travel apps that improve trip predictability and provide integrated multimodal options.
• Implementing targeted awareness campaigns addressing specific motivations of different commuter groups.
• Focusing policy efforts on peripheral areas where the potential for modal shift and emission reductions is greatest.
• Encouraging regional coordination of P&R facilities and MaaS platforms to maximize efficiency and sustainability benefits.

Future research should expand on diverse car user groups and explore long-term behavioral impacts of travel app adoption.

Data and Code Availability

The data supporting this study’s findings are available at the U-Move project website: http://umove.transyt-projects.es/category/dissemination/.

Code for propensity score matching and ordinal logit models is available upon request from the corresponding author.

1. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Addressed or Connected

1. SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
   • The article discusses urban and suburban mobility, focusing on reducing car dependency and promoting public transport through Park & Ride (P&R) facilities and Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) apps, which aligns with making cities inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.
2. SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
   • The development and adoption of travel apps and MaaS platforms represent innovation in transport infrastructure and services.
3. SDG 13: Climate Action
   • By promoting sustainable transport modes and reducing private vehicle use, the article addresses reducing greenhouse gas emissions and combating climate change.
4. SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being
   • The article mentions health benefits from using sustainable modes, such as walking and cycling, which are facilitated by travel apps.

2. Specific Targets Under Those SDGs Identified

1. SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
   • Target 11.2: By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport.
   • Target 11.3: Enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management.
2. SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
   • Target 9.1: Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and transborder infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-being.
   • Target 9.5: Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors, including transport technologies.
3. SDG 13: Climate Action
   • Target 13.2: Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning, including reducing emissions from transport.
4. SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being
   • Target 3.4: Reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through prevention and promotion of mental health and well-being, which includes promoting active transport modes.

3. Indicators Mentioned or Implied to Measure Progress

1. Indicator for SDG 11.2:
   • Proportion of population that has convenient access to public transport, which relates to the availability and use of P&R facilities and public transport services in suburban areas.
   • Usage rates of travel apps and MaaS platforms as tools to facilitate access and improve transport efficiency.
2. Indicator for SDG 9.1 and 9.5:
   • Number and coverage of innovative transport infrastructure and digital platforms (e.g., MaaS apps) deployed in the region.
   • Adoption rates of travel apps among suburban car users and P&R users, measuring technology uptake.
3. Indicator for SDG 13.2:
   • Reduction in vehicle kilometers traveled (VKT) by private car users due to modal shift facilitated by P&R and MaaS adoption.
   • Estimated reductions in CO₂ emissions from transport modes, as implied by the app’s carbon footprint approximation feature.
4. Indicator for SDG 3.4:
   • Health benefits calculated from increased use of sustainable modes such as walking and cycling, supported by app features.

4. Table: SDGs, Targets and Indicators

Source: nature.com