Democracy – Representation, Equality, Participation | Britannica

Features of an Ideal Democracy

At a minimum, an ideal democracy would have the following features:

1. Effective participation

   Before a policy is adopted or rejected, members of the dēmos have the opportunity to make their views about the policy known to other members.

2. Equality in voting

   Members of the dēmos have the opportunity to vote for or against the policy, and all votes are counted as equal.

3. Informed electorate

   Members of the dēmos have the opportunity, within a reasonable amount of time, to learn about the policy and about possible alternative policies and their likely consequences.

4. Citizen control of the agenda

   The dēmos, and only the dēmos, decides what matters are placed on the decision-making agenda and how they are placed there. Thus, the democratic process is “open” in the sense that the dēmos can change the policies of the association at any time.

5. Inclusion

   Each and every member of the dēmos is entitled to participate in the association in the ways just described.

6. Fundamental rights

   Each member of the dēmos has a right to communicate with others, a right to have their vote counted equally with the votes of others, a right to gather information, a right to participate on an equal footing with other members, and a right, with other members, to exercise control of the agenda. Democracy, therefore, consists of more than just political processes; it is also necessarily a system of fundamental rights.

Political Institutions in Modern Democracies

In modern representative democracies, the features of ideal democracy, to the extent that they exist, are realized through a variety of political institutions. These institutions, which are broadly similar in different countries despite significant differences in constitutional structure, were entirely new in human history at the time of their first appearance in Europe and the United States in the 18th century. Among the most important of them is naturally the institution of representation itself, through which all major government decisions and policies are made by popularly elected officials, who are accountable to the electorate for their actions. Other important institutions include:

• Free, fair, and frequent elections

  Citizens may participate in such elections both as voters and as candidates (though age and residence restrictions may be imposed).

• Freedom of expression

  Citizens may express themselves publicly on a broad range of politically relevant subjects without fear of punishment (see freedom of speech).

• Independent sources of information

  There exist sources of political information that are not under the control of the government or any single group and whose right to publish or otherwise disseminate information is protected by law; moreover, all citizens are entitled to seek out and use such sources of information.

• Freedom of association

  Citizens have the right to form and to participate in independent political organizations, including parties and interest groups.

Actual Democracies

Since Aristotle’s time, political philosophers generally have insisted that no actual political system is likely to attain, to the fullest extent possible, all the features of its corresponding ideal. Nevertheless, such institutions may produce a satisfactory approximation of the ideal—as presumably they did in Athens in the 5th century BCE, when the term democracy was coined, and in the United States in the early 19th century, when Tocqueville, like most others in America and elsewhere, unhesitatingly called the country a democracy.

For associations that are small in population and area, the political institutions of direct democracy seem best to approximate the ideal of “government by the people.” In such a democracy all matters of importance to the association as a whole can be decided on by the citizens. Citizens have the opportunity to discuss the policies that come before them and to gather information directly from those they consider well informed, as well as from other sources. They can meet at a convenient place—the Pnyx in Athens, the Forum in Rome, the Palazzo Ducale in Venice, or the town hall in a New England village—to discuss the policy further and to offer amendments or revisions. Finally, their decision is rendered in a vote, all votes being counted equal, with the votes of a majority prevailing.

It is thus easy to see why direct democracies are sometimes thought to approach ideal democracy much more closely than representative systems ever could, and why the most ardent advocates of direct democracy have sometimes insisted, as Rousseau did in The Social Contract, that the term representative democracy is self-contradictory. Yet, views like these have failed to win many converts.