Urban pearl millet farmers’ perceptions of climate change and adaptation strategies in Niamey commune V, the Sahel – Nature

Executive Summary

This report details a study on the climate change perceptions and adaptation strategies of urban pearl millet farmers in Niamey Commune V, Niger. The research highlights the critical role of urban agriculture in achieving multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), and SDG 13 (Climate Action). Findings indicate a high level of climate awareness among farmers, who have adopted a combination of local and extension-based strategies to mitigate climate impacts. Analysis reveals that local practices primarily focus on productivity and adaptation, while extension-led strategies offer a more holistic approach encompassing productivity, adaptation, and mitigation, aligning closely with the principles of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA). The study underscores the necessity of integrating adaptive agricultural practices into urban planning and strengthening extension services to enhance urban food security and build climate-resilient communities, thereby advancing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Introduction: Aligning Urban Agriculture with Sustainable Development Goals

Climate change poses a significant threat to sustainable development, undermining progress towards key SDGs, including SDG 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 2 (Zero Hunger). The agricultural sector is both a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions and highly vulnerable to climate impacts, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Niger, a nation heavily reliant on rainfed agriculture, these challenges are acute, threatening food security and livelihoods. Urban and peri-urban agriculture has emerged as a vital strategy for enhancing urban resilience, directly contributing to SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities). This study focuses on pearl millet farmers in Niamey’s Commune V, an overlooked demographic in agricultural research. By examining their adaptation strategies, this report aims to provide insights that can inform policies designed to build resilient urban food systems and promote climate action (SDG 13), ensuring that urban development is both sustainable and inclusive.

Methodology: Assessing Climate Resilience and SDG Contributions

A mixed-methods approach was employed to investigate climate change perceptions and adaptation strategies among 150 urban pearl millet farmers in Niamey Commune V. The study was designed to generate data relevant to local contributions towards achieving SDG 13 (Climate Action) and building sustainable food production systems (SDG 2.4).

Data Collection

Data were collected through a combination of methods to ensure a comprehensive analysis:

• Structured interviews with 150 pearl millet farmers aged 40 and above, selected via snowball sampling.
• Focus group discussions to capture community-level perceptions and strategies.
• Key informant interviews with the Agricultural Extension Unit.
• Analysis of 30 years of meteorological rainfall data (1991–2020) to corroborate farmer perceptions.

Data Analysis

Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a binary logistic regression model to identify the determinants of adaptation strategy adoption. The climate-smartness of each strategy was evaluated using the CGIAR-CCAFS framework, which assesses practices against three pillars directly linked to the SDGs:

1. Productivity: Improving yields and incomes to support SDG 1 and SDG 2.
2. Adaptation/Resilience: Enhancing capacity to cope with climate shocks, contributing to SDG 13.1.
3. Mitigation: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions, aligning with SDG 13 and SDG 15 (Life on Land).

Findings: Farmer Perceptions and Climate Realities

High Awareness of Climate Change

An overwhelming majority of farmers (98%) perceive that the climate has changed over the past 30 years. This awareness is a critical first step towards taking climate action (SDG 13). Farmers’ perceptions are consistent with meteorological data, which show a decline in annual rainfall and increased inter-annual variability between 1991 and 2020. These climatic shifts directly threaten agricultural productivity and the goal of Zero Hunger (SDG 2).

Observed Climate Impacts

Farmers identified several key manifestations of climate change, which impact their ability to maintain sustainable food production systems (SDG 2.4) and protect terrestrial ecosystems (SDG 15):

• Decreased Rainfall: 74.7% of farmers reported a decrease in rainfall quantity and quality.
• Increased Temperatures: 77.3% noted a rise in temperatures and more frequent hot winds.
• More Frequent Droughts: 80% perceived an increase in the frequency and duration of droughts.
• Increased Flooding: 54.7% reported an increase in flood events, which damage crops and infrastructure, hindering progress on SDG 11.

Analysis of Adaptation Strategies and SDG Alignment

In response to perceived climate risks, farmers have adopted a range of strategies. These practices were analyzed for their contribution to the three pillars of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA), a framework that supports the integrated achievement of SDGs 2, 13, and 15.

Local Adaptation Strategies

These strategies, rooted in indigenous knowledge, primarily focus on enhancing productivity and adaptation to secure livelihoods (SDG 1) and food supply (SDG 2).

• Soil Fertility Regeneration (85.3% adoption): Practices like using organic manure and fallowing contribute to SDG 15.3 (combat desertification) and SDG 2.4 (sustainable food production).
• Adjusted Planting Calendars (56.7% adoption): This enhances resilience (SDG 13.1) by aligning cropping cycles with erratic rainfall.
• Crop Diversification (14.7% adoption): Spreads risk and supports more resilient agricultural systems (SDG 2.4).
• Water and Soil Conservation (6% adoption): Techniques such as Zai and half-moons directly support SDG 15.3 and enhance water-use efficiency.
• Prayers and Rituals (8.7% adoption): Reflects the cultural dimension of resilience.

Extension-Promoted Adaptation Strategies

Strategies promoted by extension services demonstrate a more holistic alignment with the SDGs, integrating productivity, adaptation, and mitigation.

• Improved Millet Varieties (90.9% adoption): Short-cycle, drought-tolerant seeds directly boost productivity and resilience, advancing SDG 2.4.
• Organic Fertilization (43.9% adoption): Improves soil health (SDG 15.3) and reduces reliance on chemical inputs, contributing to sustainable agriculture (SDG 2).
• Crop Diversification (25.8% adoption): Includes intercropping with legumes (e.g., millet-cowpea), which improves soil nitrogen and supports SDG 15.
• Water and Soil Conservation Techniques (21.2% adoption): These practices enhance adaptation while also increasing soil carbon sequestration, providing a mitigation co-benefit (SDG 13).

Determinants of Climate Action in Urban Agriculture

A logistic regression model identified key factors influencing farmers’ adoption of extension-promoted strategies. These determinants highlight the importance of institutional support and education in driving climate action (SDG 13) at the local level.

Significant Factors Influencing Adoption

1. Perception of Human-Induced Climate Change: Farmers who attribute climate change to human activities are more likely to adopt formal adaptation strategies, indicating that awareness campaigns can foster greater climate action.
2. Education Level: Higher levels of education positively correlate with the adoption of new techniques, underscoring the role of SDG 4 (Quality Education) as an enabler of sustainable development.
3. Membership in Farmer Associations: These groups facilitate knowledge sharing and resource access, acting as crucial platforms for partnership and collective action, in line with SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals).
4. Cultivable Farmland: Farmers with larger landholdings are more likely to invest in adaptation, suggesting a need for targeted support for smallholder farmers.
5. Participation in Climate Adaptation Training: Access to training significantly increases the adoption of resilient practices, reinforcing the need for investment in capacity building (SDG 4, SDG 13).

Conclusion and Policy Recommendations for Sustainable Urban Development

Urban pearl millet farmers in Niamey are acutely aware of climate change and are actively implementing adaptation strategies that contribute to local food security and resilience. Their actions are fundamental to achieving SDG 2 and SDG 11 in an urban Sahelian context. However, a gap exists between local practices, which prioritize immediate productivity and adaptation, and the more integrated, climate-smart approaches promoted by extension services that also deliver mitigation co-benefits (SDG 13). To bridge this gap and accelerate progress towards the SDGs, this report proposes the following recommendations:

• Expand Access to Climate-Smart Training: Develop targeted training programs (SDG 4) that blend scientific insights with local knowledge to promote practices with co-benefits for productivity, adaptation, and mitigation.
• Strengthen Farmer Organizations: Invest in farmer associations to foster partnerships (SDG 17), enhance knowledge exchange, and improve access to climate-resilient inputs and financial resources.
• Promote Integrated Agricultural Practices: Support the adoption of strategies like agroforestry and advanced soil conservation that simultaneously enhance food production (SDG 2), build resilience (SDG 13), and protect ecosystems (SDG 15).
• Improve Climate Information Systems: Ensure the delivery of timely and actionable climate forecasts to empower farmers to make informed decisions, thereby strengthening the foundation for sustainable and resilient urban communities (SDG 11).

Analysis of Sustainable Development Goals in the Article

1. Which SDGs are addressed or connected to the issues highlighted in the article?

1. SDG 2: Zero Hunger
   • The article focuses on the production of pearl millet, a “staple crop” that is central to “food security” in Niamey, Niger. It directly addresses the challenges climate change poses to agricultural productivity, which can lead to “food shortages.” The study examines adaptation strategies aimed at sustaining crop production and ensuring households can meet their food needs. The evaluation of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices, which aim to “sustainably increase agricultural productivity,” further reinforces this connection.
2. SDG 13: Climate Action
   • This is the core theme of the article. The study investigates “climate change perceptions and adaptation strategies” among farmers. It details the impacts of climate variability, such as “disruptions in rainfall,” “recurring droughts, floods,” and “increased temperatures.” The analysis of farmers’ responses, including both local and extension-led adaptation measures, directly relates to building resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards. The article also touches upon mitigation by assessing the “mitigation smartness” of agricultural practices, such as those that enhance carbon sequestration.
3. SDG 1: No Poverty
   • The article states that urban agriculture is the “primary income source for approximately 50% of households” in Niger. Climate-induced challenges like “crop failures” and “lower millet yields” directly threaten these livelihoods, increasing the vulnerability of farming households to poverty. The adoption of adaptation strategies is presented as a means to protect these incomes and enhance economic resilience.
4. SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
   • The research is specifically set in an urban context, focusing on “urban pearl millet farmers in Niamey Commune V.” It highlights the growing importance of “urban and peri-urban agriculture” for food security and livelihoods in cities. The article concludes by underscoring the need for “integration of adaptive agricultural practices into urban planning” to enhance the resilience of urban agricultural systems, directly contributing to making cities more sustainable and resilient.
5. SDG 15: Life on Land
   • The article discusses the ecological impacts of climate change, including “declining soil fertility” and the “disappearance of certain plant and tree species.” Many of the adaptation strategies analyzed are aimed at protecting and restoring terrestrial ecosystems. These include “soil fertility regeneration techniques,” “soil conservation techniques” (like Zai and half-moons), and the mention of “agroforestry,” all of which are crucial for combating land degradation.

2. What specific targets under those SDGs can be identified based on the article’s content?

1. Target 2.4: By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality.
   • The article directly addresses this target by analyzing the various adaptation strategies farmers use to cope with climate change. Practices such as “soil fertility regeneration techniques,” “crop diversification,” “water conservation techniques,” and the use of “improved seeds” are all examples of resilient agricultural practices intended to sustain productivity and improve soil quality in the face of climate variability. The evaluation of these strategies using the three pillars of CSA (productivity, adaptation, mitigation) is a clear effort to identify sustainable and resilient systems.
2. Target 13.1: Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries.
   • The entire study is an examination of this target in action. It identifies the specific climate hazards affecting farmers in Niamey (droughts, floods, erratic rainfall) and documents the “coping strategies” they have developed to build resilience. The article analyzes both “indigenous knowledge-based adaptation strategies” and those “promoted by agricultural services,” demonstrating a multi-faceted approach to strengthening adaptive capacity at the local level.
3. Target 13.3: Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning.
   • The article highlights the critical role of education and institutional support. It finds that “participation in training sessions on climate change adaptation significantly increases the probability of adopting extension-led strategies.” The role of “extension services” in promoting holistic CSA practices and the finding that “membership in a farmer association” positively influences adoption both point to the importance of building human and institutional capacity for effective climate adaptation.
4. Target 1.5: By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters.
   • The study focuses on smallholder urban farmers in the Sahel, a highly vulnerable population. The “humanitarian crises characterized by recurring droughts, floods, food shortages” mentioned in the introduction directly link climate events to the vulnerability of the poor. The adaptation strategies discussed, such as diversifying income sources (“off-farm diversification emerged as a key strategy to cope with poor harvests”), are direct measures to reduce economic vulnerability to climate shocks.
5. Target 15.3: By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world.
   • The article identifies “declining soil fertility” as a major challenge. In response, farmers adopt strategies like “soil fertility regeneration” (using organic manure), and “soil conservation techniques” such as “Zai and half-moon techniques” to reduce water erosion. These practices are direct actions to restore degraded land and improve soil health, aligning perfectly with this target.

3. Are there any indicators mentioned or implied in the article that can be used to measure progress towards the identified targets?

1. Percentage of farmers aware of climate change:
   • The article states that “a majority of the pearl millet farmers (98%) acknowledged the reality and occurrence of climate change.” This serves as a direct indicator for measuring awareness, relevant to Target 13.3.
2. Adoption rates of specific agricultural practices:
   • The article provides quantitative data on the adoption of various strategies. For example, “soil fertility regeneration (85.3%),” “cropping practices and agricultural calendar adjustments (56.7%),” and the adoption of “improved millet varieties (90.9%)” among farmers engaged with extension services. These figures can be used as indicators to measure the implementation of resilient agricultural practices (Target 2.4).
3. Meteorological data trends:
   • The analysis of “30 years of rainfall data (1991–2020)” showing a “downward trend in annual rainfall and an increase in inter-annual variability” serves as a baseline indicator of climate-related hazards (Target 13.1). Tracking this data over time can measure the increasing severity of the challenge.
4. Factors influencing adoption of adaptation strategies:
   • The logistic regression model identifies key determinants for adopting extension-promoted strategies, such as “membership in a farmer association,” “education level,” and “participation in climate adaptation training.” The prevalence of these factors within the farming community can serve as an indirect indicator of adaptive capacity (Targets 13.1 and 13.3).
5. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) assessment scores:
   • The study uses a scoring system (-10 to +10) to evaluate adaptation strategies against the three pillars of CSA: productivity, adaptation, and mitigation. These scores provide a nuanced set of indicators to assess how well a specific practice contributes to sustainable agriculture and climate action (Targets 2.4 and 13.1). For example, the finding that extension-promoted strategies are more “holistic” suggests they are more effective in meeting multiple sustainability goals.

4. Table of SDGs, Targets, and Indicators

Source: nature.com