Regional cooperation against transnational organized crime: challenges and opportunities in the Western Hemisphere – Frontiers

Report on Transnational Organized Crime in the Western Hemisphere and its Impact on Sustainable Development Goals

1.0 Introduction: A Fundamental Challenge to the 2030 Agenda

Transnational Organized Crime (TOC) has emerged as a primary threat to international peace, regional stability, and the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the Western Hemisphere. The complex and interconnected networks involved in drug trafficking, human smuggling, cybercrime, and illicit financial flows directly undermine progress across the 2030 Agenda. This report analyzes the multidimensional nature of TOC, evaluating its profound impact on political, economic, and social structures and assessing the effectiveness of regional cooperation mechanisms. A central finding is that combating TOC is not merely a security issue but a prerequisite for fostering peace, justice, and inclusive development as envisioned in SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions) and the broader sustainable development framework.

The failure of traditional, siloed responses highlights the need for integrated, transnational strategies. This report examines the obstacles and innovations in building resilient security architectures, framing the fight against TOC as essential for achieving:

• SDG 16: By promoting the rule of law, reducing corruption, and curbing illicit financial and arms flows.
• SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth): By protecting legitimate economies from distortion and ending forced labor and human trafficking.
• SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities): By protecting vulnerable migrant populations and ensuring inclusive governance.
• SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals): By fostering effective regional and international cooperation to address a shared threat.

2.0 Diagnosis of Transnational Organized Crime in the Western Hemisphere

A comprehensive diagnosis of TOC reveals its deep interconnection with migration, social cohesion, and economic stability, posing a systemic threat to sustainable development. Criminal networks exploit vulnerabilities in governance, technology, and cross-border management, necessitating coordinated regional strategies aligned with the SDGs.

2.1 Characterization of TOC as an Obstacle to Sustainable Development

TOC functions as a parallel institution that normalizes illegality, co-opts formal state structures, and erodes public trust, directly impeding the progress of SDG 16. By establishing counter-power structures, these networks dismantle state capacity and limit the ability of communities to develop sustainable alternatives. The Western Hemisphere is unique in its combination of transnational criminal economies with localized, community-based networks, creating hybrid arrangements that challenge governance and exploit institutional instability.

2.1.1 Typology of TOC Activities and their SDG Impacts

• Drug Trafficking: As the most lucrative activity, it fuels violence, corruption, and institutional decay, directly contravening SDG 16.1 (reduce all forms of violence) and SDG 16.5 (substantially reduce corruption and bribery).
• Human Trafficking: Exploits vulnerable migrants, particularly women and children, for sexual and labor exploitation. This is a severe violation of human rights and a direct impediment to SDG 5 (Gender Equality), SDG 8.7 (end forced labor and human trafficking), and SDG 10.7 (facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration).
• Smuggling: The illicit trade in goods undermines local economies, erodes the tax base needed for public services, and hinders progress toward SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth).
• Financial Crimes: Money laundering integrates illicit revenues into the legitimate financial system, distorting economies and undermining SDG 16.4 (significantly reduce illicit financial flows).

2.1.2 Analysis of Criminal Networks

TOC networks operate as adaptive, decentralized multinational entities that exploit jurisdictional gaps. Their resilience is not merely operational but systemic, allowing them to function as political actors that reshape governance and security at local levels. This structural challenge requires responses that go beyond operational disruption to include the restoration of state legitimacy and social trust, which are core tenets of SDG 16.

2.2 Hybrid Threats, the Grey Zone, and their Connection to TOC

TOC increasingly employs hybrid threats, combining conventional criminal tactics with advanced technologies and asymmetric strategies to destabilize political and economic systems. These networks operate within the “grey zone”—a conceptual space between peace and war—to achieve their objectives below the threshold of a conventional military response. This approach systematically erodes state institutions and public trust, creating an environment where sustainable development cannot thrive.

The use of technology has revolutionized TOC operations:

1. Cryptocurrencies: Facilitate anonymous financial transactions for money laundering, undermining global efforts to meet SDG 16.4.
2. Artificial Intelligence (AI): Used to optimize trafficking routes and predict law enforcement movements, creating new challenges for security institutions.
3. Cybercrime: Ransomware and phishing attacks target critical infrastructure and extort governments, destabilizing the very institutions needed to advance the SDGs.
4. Drones: Employed for surveillance and transport, enhancing the efficiency of illicit operations.

These hybrid strategies have profound repercussions, exacerbating humanitarian crises, distorting economies, and eroding the legitimacy of democratic institutions, thereby obstructing progress on SDG 10, SDG 8, and SDG 16.

2.3 Assessment of State and Regional Responses

Current responses to TOC in the Western Hemisphere have yielded mixed results. While progress has been made, significant weaknesses persist that hinder the achievement of a secure and sustainable region.

2.3.1 Strengths of Current Approaches

• Increased Regional Cooperation: Multilateral organizations like the OAS have promoted agreements for intelligence sharing and joint operations, reflecting progress toward SDG 17.
• Technological Advances: Adoption of advanced surveillance and data analytics has enhanced detection capabilities in some states.
• Alternative Development Programs: UN-promoted programs offer economic alternatives to communities dependent on illicit economies, addressing the root causes of crime in line with SDG 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 8.

2.3.2 Weaknesses of Current Approaches

• Lack of Effective Coordination: Political and economic differences hinder the implementation of unified strategies, weakening the partnerships required by SDG 17.
• Corruption and Institutional Weakness: The infiltration of TOC into state institutions remains a primary obstacle to achieving the targets of SDG 16.
• Predominance of Repressive Approaches: Over-reliance on militarized strategies fails to address the underlying drivers of TOC, such as poverty and inequality, which are central to SDG 1 and SDG 10.

3.0 Multidimensional Impact of TOC on Sustainable Development

The impact of TOC is multidimensional, creating cascading negative effects across the political, economic, and social pillars of sustainable development.

3.1 Political Consequences

TOC weakens the rule of law, undermines government legitimacy, and paralyzes institutions, creating a vicious cycle of destabilization. This directly obstructs the achievement of SDG 16, which calls for effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels. Corruption and infiltration into democratic processes erode public trust and hinder the implementation of policies essential for social and economic development.

3.2 Economic Consequences

TOC activities distort markets, deter foreign investment, and perpetuate poverty. Money laundering diverts resources from development, while smuggling erodes the tax base needed for public services like education and healthcare. This creates a significant barrier to achieving SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) and SDG 1 (No Poverty). By trapping communities in informal economies, TOC exacerbates the inequalities targeted by SDG 10.

3.3 Social Consequences

The social fabric of communities is devastated by the violence, extortion, and fear generated by TOC. This leads to forced displacement, deteriorates public safety, and undermines SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities). Vulnerable groups, including women, children, and migrants, are disproportionately affected, particularly through human trafficking and forced recruitment, which directly contravenes SDG 5 and SDG 10. The resulting loss of trust in public institutions further fragments society and impedes long-term social development.

4.0 Regional Cooperation: A Pathway to Achieving SDG 16 and SDG 17

Effective regional cooperation is paramount to countering the transnational nature of TOC. Building strong partnerships, as envisioned in SDG 17, is essential for strengthening institutions and ensuring peace and justice, in line with SDG 16.

4.1 Current Tools of Cooperation

Mechanisms such as the OAS and CARICOM provide normative frameworks for cooperation. However, their effectiveness is often limited by political fragmentation, lack of sustained commitment, and resource constraints. Bilateral efforts, while important, are insufficient to dismantle criminal networks that operate across multiple borders. A more institutionalized and integrated approach is needed to translate agreements into operational success.

4.2 Collective Intelligence as a Key Tool

The exchange of intelligence is a critical strategy for tracking illicit flows and coordinating actions. However, disparities in technology and a lack of trust between states hinder its full potential. Strengthening collective intelligence requires investment in technology, standardized data protection protocols, and the active participation of international bodies like INTERPOL. This would significantly advance the goal of building effective and accountable institutions under SDG 16.

4.3 The Relationship Between Migration Control and TOC

TOC networks exploit unregulated migration routes and the vulnerabilities of migrants, undermining efforts to achieve SDG 10.7 (orderly and safe migration). The absence of effective migration control creates an environment where human trafficking and other illicit activities flourish. Comprehensive strategies that combine border security with the protection of migrants’ human rights are essential. Addressing the root causes of migration, such as poverty and violence, through sustainable development programs is crucial for reducing the vulnerability of populations to exploitation by criminal networks.

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations for a Sustainable Future

Transnational Organized Crime is not a peripheral issue but a central obstacle to achieving the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in the Western Hemisphere. It operates as a competing form of governance that erodes state legitimacy, hinders economic progress, and devastates social cohesion. A coordinated, multidimensional, and sustained regional response is imperative.

To build a collective security ecosystem capable of responding to this hybrid threat, this report proposes the following recommendations, aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals:

1. Strengthen Regional Partnerships (SDG 17): Institutionalize cooperation mechanisms through binding agreements, sustained political commitment, and shared funding to create resilient security architectures that transcend national politics.
2. Promote Justice and Fortify Institutions (SDG 16): Invest heavily in anti-corruption measures, judicial reform, and law enforcement capacity-building to restore public trust and enhance the rule of law.
3. Adopt a Human-Centric Approach to Migration (SDG 10): Develop and implement comprehensive, human-rights-based migration policies that protect vulnerable populations while securing borders, thereby reducing opportunities for exploitation by TOC.
4. Address Root Causes Through Inclusive Development (SDG 1, 8, and 10): Increase investment in alternative development programs, education, and job creation in marginalized communities to reduce their dependence on illicit economies and build social resilience.
5. Leverage Technology for Good Governance: Enhance regional intelligence-sharing platforms and utilize technologies like AI and data analytics to anticipate and disrupt criminal activities, while ensuring these tools are governed by principles of transparency and accountability.

Analysis of Sustainable Development Goals in the Article

1. Which SDGs are addressed or connected to the issues highlighted in the article?

1. SDG 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
   • The article’s central theme is Transnational Organized Crime (TOC), which directly undermines peace, security, and the rule of law. It discusses how TOC causes “extreme violence,” fosters “corruption at all levels of government,” weakens “the rule of law,” and erodes the “legitimacy of governments and democratic institutions.” These issues are the core focus of SDG 16.
2. SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
   • The article highlights the severe economic impact of TOC, stating that it “degrade[s] legal economies,” “undermines local economies,” and discourages “foreign direct investment.” Furthermore, it explicitly mentions “human trafficking” for “labor exploitation,” which directly relates to the goal of eradicating forced labor and promoting decent work.
3. SDG 5: Gender Equality
   • The article points out the disproportionate impact of TOC on women and girls. It states, “more than 70% of trafficking victims are women, highlighting the disproportionate gendered impact of this activity.” This connects directly to SDG 5’s aim to eliminate all forms of violence and exploitation against women and girls.
4. SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities
   • The article explains that TOC “perpetuates a vicious cycle of poverty and inequality” and “exacerbates social inequalities by exploiting the most vulnerable groups, such as women, children, and migrants.” The extensive discussion on migration, the exploitation of migrants, and the need for migration control policies connects to SDG 10’s focus on facilitating safe and orderly migration.
5. SDG 17: Partnerships for the Goals
   • A major argument in the article is that national responses are insufficient and that “regional cooperation” is essential. It mentions various multilateral organizations like the “Organization of American States (OAS),” “CARICOM,” and the “Pacific Alliance,” as well as the need for “intelligence sharing” and “aligned legal frameworks.” This emphasis on international and regional partnership is the essence of SDG 17.

2. What specific targets under those SDGs can be identified based on the article’s content?

1. Under SDG 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
   • Target 16.1: Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere. The article refers to TOC causing “extreme violence,” “high rates of violence, extortion, and homicide,” and turning “entire regions into conflict zones.”
   • Target 16.2: End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children. The article mentions the “forced recruitment of minors for illicit activities” as a way TOC exploits vulnerable groups.
   • Target 16.4: Significantly reduce illicit financial and arms flows… and combat all forms of organized crime. This target is central to the article, which details TOC activities like “drug trafficking,” “arms and human smuggling,” “financial crimes,” and “money laundering.”
   • Target 16.5: Substantially reduce corruption and bribery in all their forms. The article repeatedly emphasizes that TOC “fosters corruption at all levels of government,” uses “bribery of officials,” and co-opts public institutions.
   • Target 16.6: Develop effective, accountable and transparent institutions at all levels. The article discusses “institutional weakness,” “public distrust in their governments,” and the erosion of “the legitimacy of governments” as key consequences of TOC.
   • Target 16.a: Strengthen relevant national institutions, including through international cooperation… to prevent violence and combat… crime. The article advocates for “regional cooperation,” “multilateral agreements,” and “intelligence sharing” through bodies like the OAS to build capacity against TOC.
2. Under SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
   • Target 8.7: Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking. The article explicitly identifies “human trafficking” for “sexual and labor exploitation” as a primary activity of TOC networks.
3. Under SDG 5: Gender Equality
   • Target 5.2: Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls… including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation. The article directly supports this by stating that criminal networks exploit “women and girls, for trafficking and human exploitation purposes, including sexual and labor exploitation” and that they constitute “more than 70% of trafficking victims.”
4. Under SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities
   • Target 10.7: Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies. The article extensively discusses how TOC exploits “unregulated migration routes” and the “vulnerabilities of migrants,” highlighting the consequences of the “absence of migration control” and the need for comprehensive strategies to manage migration flows.
5. Under SDG 17: Partnerships for the Goals
   • Target 17.16: Enhance the global partnership for sustainable development, complemented by multi-stakeholder partnerships. The entire article argues for moving beyond “bilateral strategies” towards “multilateral cooperation” and “coordinated regional cooperation” involving organizations like the OAS and CARICOM to effectively combat the transnational nature of organized crime.

3. Are there any indicators mentioned or implied in the article that can be used to measure progress towards the identified targets?

1. For SDG 16 Targets:
   • Implied Indicator for 16.1: Rates of violence, extortion, and homicide in regions affected by TOC. The article mentions these as direct consequences, suggesting their measurement is key.
   • Implied Indicator for 16.2 & 5.2: Proportion of trafficking victims who are women and children. The article provides a specific statistic: “more than 70% of trafficking victims are women,” which can be used as a baseline indicator.
   • Implied Indicator for 16.4: Volume of illicit financial flows. The article mentions that “money laundering associated with TOC represents a considerable percentage of GDP in several Latin American countries,” implying that this percentage is a measurable indicator.
   • Implied Indicator for 16.5: Level of public trust in government and judicial institutions. The article notes that corruption “undermines public trust” and leads to “public distrust in their governments,” suggesting that perception surveys could be an indicator.
2. For SDG 8 Target:
   • Implied Indicator for 8.7: Number of identified victims of human trafficking for labor exploitation. The article’s focus on this crime implies that tracking the number of victims is a necessary measure of the problem’s scale.
3. For SDG 10 Target:
   • Implied Indicator for 10.7: The number of migrants exploited or extorted along specific unregulated routes (e.g., the Darien Gap). The article’s case study of this route suggests that tracking incidents here would measure the effectiveness of migration control. Another indicator is the existence and implementation of regional migration management agreements, such as those promoted by the “Regional Conference on Migration (CRM).”
4. For SDG 17 Target:
   • Implied Indicator for 17.16: The number and effectiveness of regional cooperation agreements and joint operations. The article discusses the role of the OAS, CARICOM, and bilateral initiatives like the Mérida Initiative, implying that the scope and results of these partnerships are key indicators of progress.

4. Table of SDGs, Targets, and Indicators

Source: frontiersin.org