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Report on China’s Food Security and Alignment with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Introduction: National Security and the Pursuit of SDG 2 (Zero Hunger)

Food security is a foundational component of national security and stability in the People’s Republic of China. While significant economic growth has advanced progress toward Sustainable Development Goal 2 (Zero Hunger) by increasing food access, it has also introduced new demographic and environmental pressures. Global shocks, including the COVID-19 pandemic, geopolitical tensions, and the escalating effects of climate change, have heightened policy focus on food security. This report analyzes the primary threats to China’s food security, alongside key areas of resilience, with a significant emphasis on their relationship with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.

Challenges to Achieving Sustainable Food Systems

Consumption Patterns and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production)

China’s economic development has led to a substantial reduction in undernourishment, directly contributing to SDG 2. The rate of undernourishment fell from 10.3 percent in 2001 to below 2.5 percent by 2010. However, rising affluence has shifted dietary habits, presenting challenges to SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production).

• Shift to Resource-Intensive Diets: A growing urban middle class has transitioned from a grain-based diet to one high in meat and dairy. China is now the world’s largest consumer of meat and fish and the largest importer of milk. This trend increases the environmental footprint of food consumption.
• Increased Demand for Animal Feed: The high demand for meat translates directly to a high demand for animal feeds, particularly soybeans, placing further strain on agricultural resources.
• Food Waste: China is the world’s largest generator of food waste, producing over 200 million metric tons in 2022. This directly undermines the targets of SDG 12.
• Policy Responses: The government has initiated campaigns such as the “Clean Plate” campaign and enacted the 2021 Anti-Food Waste Law to institutionalize monitoring and promote responsible consumption.

Domestic Production Constraints and Environmental SDGs

China has long pursued a policy of food self-sufficiency, aiming for a 95 percent self-sufficiency rate for grains to ensure “absolute security” in staples. While it is the world’s largest food producer, significant environmental constraints challenge the sustainability of its domestic production, impacting several SDGs.

1. Arable Land Scarcity (SDG 15: Life on Land): Rapid industrialization, urbanization, and overcultivation have led to a decline in arable land. Between 2009 and 2021, total arable land decreased by over 12 million hectares. The government has established a “red line” of 120 million hectares to halt this loss.
2. Fertilizer Overuse (SDG 12, SDG 15): To boost crop output, overuse of fertilizers became common, leading to soil degradation, pollution, and long-term environmental damage. Although policies promoting “zero growth of fertilizer use” have reduced consumption since 2015, China’s usage rate remains over three times that of the U.S. and EU.
3. Water Scarcity (SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation): China possesses freshwater resources comparable to the United States but has four times the population and uses twice as much for agriculture. Agricultural production has shifted to more water-scarce northern and western regions, exacerbating water stress.
4. Climate Change Impacts (SDG 13: Climate Action): Climate change is intensifying production challenges through increased frequency of droughts, extreme heat, and floods. Studies indicate that extreme rainfall has already caused an 8 percent drop in rice yields over the last two decades.

Import Reliance and Global Partnership Vulnerabilities (SDG 17)

Constraints on domestic production have made China increasingly reliant on foreign imports to meet demand. In 2021, it became the world’s largest food importer, a reality that presents vulnerabilities related to global partnerships and market stability, affecting both SDG 2 and SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals).

• Declining Self-Sufficiency: The overall food self-sufficiency rate dropped from 94 percent in 2000 to 66 percent in 2020. This is particularly pronounced for certain commodities, with over 80 percent of soybeans being imported.
• Vulnerability to Global Price Shocks: Reliance on imports exposes China to volatility in global food prices, which can lead to domestic inflation and shortages. Upward shocks in international food prices accounted for approximately 20 percent of fluctuations in China’s overall inflation between 1998 and 2023.
• Geopolitical and Supply Chain Risks: Events such as the 2018 African swine fever outbreak and Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine have demonstrated how global crises can disrupt supply chains, reduce import volumes, and increase costs, accelerating China’s desire to diversify its food sources.

Strategic Strengths and Progress Towards SDGs

Diversifying Global Partnerships for Food Security (SDG 17)

In response to geopolitical tensions and supply chain risks, China is actively diversifying its food import sources, a strategy that aligns with building resilient global partnerships under SDG 17.

• Reduced Reliance on the United States: China has incrementally reduced its dependence on U.S. food imports, particularly for soybeans and meat. In 2023, only 13 percent of food imports came from the U.S., down from 28 percent in 2009.
• Strengthening Ties with Brazil: Brazil has become a primary supplier, especially for soybeans. By 2023, 69 percent of China’s imported soybeans came from Brazil.
• Leveraging the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): China has utilized the BRI to enhance food security, signing over 100 agricultural agreements with 90 BRI countries. In 2023, 39 percent of China’s food imports originated from BRI partner nations.

Ensuring Food Access and Stability (SDG 2)

Beyond availability, China demonstrates significant strength in food access, a critical pillar of SDG 2, supported by affordability, robust infrastructure, and strategic reserves.

• Food Affordability: Per capita income has risen faster than food costs, ensuring a growing share of the population can afford a healthy diet. A competitive and digitized supermarket industry has also increased convenience.
• Advanced Infrastructure (SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure): An extensive network of railways and waterways connects food production regions with population centers, ensuring efficient distribution across the country.
• Large Strategic Stockpiles: China maintains massive grain reserves, reportedly holding half of the global total in 2022. These stockpiles provide a critical buffer against supply and demand shocks, though they come at a high cost. The 2024 National Food Security Law further mandates emergency food distribution systems.

Innovation in Agriculture for Sustainable Production (SDG 9)

China is leveraging technology and innovation to overcome land and resource constraints, aligning with SDG 9 and promoting more sustainable and efficient agricultural practices.

• Investment in Agri-Tech: As the world’s top single spender on agricultural innovation, China is driving modernization. In 2023, it accounted for 41 percent of all agri-food start-up funding in the Asia-Pacific region.
• Seed Technology and Genetic Engineering: To reduce import dependence, Beijing has heavily incentivized research in genetic modification. This has led to China becoming the top global producer of seed engineering patents, with 99.9 percent of seeds consumed now produced domestically.
• Agricultural Drone Technology: China is a leader in the use of agricultural drones for functions like spraying and monitoring, which supports precision agriculture and can help optimize the use of water and fertilizers, contributing to SDG 6 and SDG 12.
• AI and Supply Chain Analytics: Artificial intelligence is being deployed to optimize farm management, delivery networks, and food safety monitoring. E-commerce platforms have developed streamlined information systems that seamlessly link farmers to consumers, reducing inefficiencies.

Analysis of Sustainable Development Goals in the Article

1. Which SDGs are addressed or connected to the issues highlighted in the article?

The article on China’s food security addresses several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), reflecting the interconnected nature of food systems with environmental, economic, and social factors. The following SDGs are most relevant:

• SDG 2: Zero Hunger: This is the central theme of the article. It extensively discusses China’s efforts to ensure food security, reduce undernourishment, increase domestic food production, and promote sustainable agricultural practices. The entire article revolves around the challenges and strengths related to achieving food security for its large population.
• SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production: The article highlights issues of unsustainable consumption patterns, such as the shift to resource-intensive meat-heavy diets and significant food waste. It explicitly states, “China is the largest waster of food in the world,” and discusses government campaigns and laws aimed at reducing this waste, directly connecting to responsible consumption.
• SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation: The article identifies water scarcity as a major constraint on domestic food production. It notes that agriculture has shifted to “relatively water-scarce” regions and that China “uses more than twice as much freshwater for agriculture” than the U.S. with similar resources. This links directly to the sustainable management of water resources.
• SDG 15: Life on Land: The degradation and loss of arable land are presented as critical challenges. The article mentions that “China’s total arable land declined by over 12 million hectares between 2009 and 2021” due to industrial growth, pollution, and overcultivation. Efforts to protect farmland, such as the “red line of 120 million hectares,” connect directly to protecting terrestrial ecosystems.
• SDG 13: Climate Action: The impact of climate change on agriculture is explicitly mentioned as a threat to food security. The article states that “Climate change is supercharging these problems by causing more droughts, extreme heat, and floods,” and references a study linking extreme rainfall to reduced rice yields, highlighting the need for climate resilience.
• SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure: The article details China’s heavy investment in agricultural innovation as a key strength. It discusses advancements in agricultural technology, including genetic modification, drones, AI, and supply chain analytics. Furthermore, it points to the importance of robust transportation infrastructure (railways and waterways) for ensuring food access across the country.
• SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth: The article links China’s economic growth to improved food security, noting that a “tripling of annual per capita disposable income” coincided with a dramatic reduction in undernourishment. The focus on increasing agricultural productivity through technology also aligns with this goal.

2. What specific targets under those SDGs can be identified based on the article’s content?

Based on the article’s discussion of policies, challenges, and strengths, several specific SDG targets can be identified:

• Under SDG 2 (Zero Hunger):
  • Target 2.1: End hunger and ensure access by all people to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round. The article directly addresses this by citing the reduction in China’s undernourishment rate and discussing policies to ensure food access through domestic production, imports, and robust transportation networks.
  • Target 2.3: Double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers. The article points to China’s high efficiency in wheat production and mentions policies like minimum procurement prices, which aim to support farmers’ incomes and stabilize production.
  • Target 2.4: Ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices. This is a core theme, with the article detailing challenges like land degradation and water scarcity, and China’s responses, such as promoting “zero growth of fertilizer use,” developing “high standard” farmlands, and researching drought-resistant crops.
  • Target 2.5: Maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals. The article discusses China’s focus on reducing import dependence for seeds through heavy investment in genetic engineering and developing its domestic seed industry.
• Under SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production):
  • Target 12.3: By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels. The article explicitly discusses China’s problem with food waste, providing per capita figures and mentioning government initiatives like the “Clean Plate campaign” and the “Anti-Food Waste Law” designed to tackle this issue.
• Under SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation):
  • Target 6.4: By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals of freshwater. The article highlights the challenge of water stress in agriculture and mentions policy responses such as promoting “water-saving irrigation techniques” and large-scale infrastructure like the “South-North Water Diversion Project.”
• Under SDG 15 (Life on Land):
  • Target 15.3: By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil. The article discusses the loss and degradation of arable land from overcultivation and pollution. China’s policy of establishing a “red line of 120 million hectares of arable land” and efforts to protect nutrient-rich black soil are direct actions toward this target.
• Under SDG 13 (Climate Action):
  • Target 13.1: Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters. The article identifies climate change as a cause of droughts and floods that threaten food production and mentions China’s efforts to develop “resilient crops” and disaster-resilient farmland.
• Under SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure):
  • Target 9.5: Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in all countries. The article extensively covers China’s status as the “world’s top single spender on agricultural innovation,” detailing investments in ag-tech startups, genetic engineering, agricultural drones, and AI to modernize the food production system.

3. Are there any indicators mentioned or implied in the article that can be used to measure progress towards the identified targets?

The article provides several quantitative and qualitative indicators that can be used to measure progress towards the identified SDG targets.

• For SDG 2 (Zero Hunger):
  • Prevalence of undernourishment (Indicator 2.1.1): The article explicitly states that “the rate of undernourishment in China’s population fell from 10.3 percent in 2001 to 2.5 percent (or less) by 2010.”
  • Agricultural productivity (Indicator 2.3.1): Progress is implied through the statement that China is “almost twice as efficient in wheat production per hectare as the United States.”
  • Food self-sufficiency rate: The article tracks this indicator, noting it “declined from 94 percent in 2000 to 66 percent in 2020.”
• For SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production):
  • Food waste per capita (Indicator 12.3.1): The article provides a specific figure: “Chinese individuals wasted an average of 142 kilograms (kg) each in 2022.” It also gives the total amount of “over 200 million metric tons of food waste in 2022.”
• For SDG 15 (Life on Land):
  • Proportion of land that is degraded (Indicator 15.3.1): The article provides data on the loss of arable land, stating it “declined by over 12 million hectares between 2009 and 2021.” The maintenance of the “120 million hectares of arable land” red line serves as a policy-based indicator.
  • Fertilizer usage per hectare of arable land: The article notes that fertilizer use “increased by 67 percent” between 2000 and 2015, but then “declined 17 percent by 2022” following policy changes.
• For SDG 13 (Climate Action):
  • Impact of extreme weather on agricultural yields: An implied indicator is provided by the reference to a study that found “extreme rainfall led to an 8 percent drop in Chinese rice yields over the past two decades.”
• For SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure):
  • R&D expenditure (Indicator 9.5.1): The article provides absolute figures for spending on agricultural innovation, noting China spent “about $4.4 billion in 2023.”
  • Infrastructure density: The article mentions China has “159,000 km of railway and 128,000 km of domestic waterways” as of 2023, which are indicators of its transportation capacity for food distribution.
  • Investment in technology: The article notes that in 2023, China “accounted for 41 percent of all agri-food start-up funding in the Asia-Pacific region.”

4. Summary Table of SDGs, Targets, and Indicators

Source: chinapower.csis.org