Mosquitoes and the city: effects of urbanization on Aedes albopictus and Culex pipiens captures in southern Spain – Parasites & Vectors

Report on the Proliferation of Invasive Mosquito Species and Implications for Sustainable Development Goals

Introduction: Invasive Alien Species as a Threat to Global Sustainability

The proliferation of invasive alien species represents a significant challenge to global environmental and public health, directly impacting the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Aedes albopictus, the Asian tiger mosquito, is recognized as one of the world’s most invasive species. Its expanding global distribution, particularly throughout Europe, poses a direct threat to several SDGs.

• SDG 15 (Life on Land): The establishment of invasive species like Ae. albopictus disrupts local ecosystems and threatens biodiversity.
• SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being): As a competent vector for numerous pathogens, the spread of this mosquito increases the risk of infectious disease outbreaks.
• SDG 13 (Climate Action): Climate change is a key driver facilitating the expansion of this mosquito’s habitat into new regions, demonstrating the interconnectedness of climate and health.

Public Health Implications and the Imperative for SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being)

The primary threat posed by Ae. albopictus is its role as a vector for debilitating and potentially fatal diseases. The increasing presence of this mosquito in Europe has led to autochthonous (locally acquired) transmission of arboviruses, undermining public health security and progress towards SDG 3.

Arbovirus Transmission in Europe

Recent years have seen a rise in locally transmitted cases of diseases historically confined to tropical regions. This trend highlights a critical public health vulnerability in Europe.

1. Dengue Fever: Outbreaks have been documented in France (Paris region, 2023) and Spain, with the dengue virus being detected in local Ae. albopictus populations.
2. Chikungunya Virus: Significant outbreaks have been recorded in Italy (2017), demonstrating the vector’s efficiency in establishing local transmission cycles once introduced.

Zoonotic and Parasitic Disease Transmission

Beyond arboviruses, Ae. albopictus is a vector for parasitic diseases, creating complex transmission cycles involving both animals and humans and reinforcing the need for a One Health approach.

• Dirofilariasis: The mosquito is a natural vector of Dirofilaria immitis (canine heartworm) and other filarial worms. Studies in Italy and Spain confirm its role in transmitting these parasites, with cases of human subcutaneous dirofilariasis reported in Barcelona and a notable expansion of canine heartworm across Spain. This directly impacts animal welfare and poses a zoonotic risk to humans.

Environmental Drivers of Expansion: A Challenge to SDG 11, 13, and 15

The successful invasion and establishment of Ae. albopictus are driven by anthropogenic environmental changes, including urbanization and climate change. Addressing these drivers is essential for achieving sustainable urban development and climate resilience.

Urbanization and Landscape Anthropization (SDG 11 & 15)

Urban and peri-urban environments provide ideal conditions for Ae. albopictus proliferation, challenging the goal of creating safe and sustainable cities (SDG 11).

• Habitat Creation: Urbanization increases the availability of artificial water-holding containers that serve as larval habitats, accelerating mosquito development and survivorship.
• Increased Abundance: Studies consistently show that landscape anthropization and urban gradients are linked to higher mosquito abundance, with spatial and temporal hot spots identified in major European metropolitan areas.
• Host Availability: Urban settings, including zoos and residential areas, concentrate human and animal hosts, facilitating blood-feeding and disease transmission.

Climate Change and Global Distribution (SDG 13)

Climate change is a critical factor in the ongoing expansion of Ae. albopictus. Predictive models indicate that changing climate scenarios will continue to alter the global distribution of this and other medically important mosquito species, increasing the geographic area at risk of vector-borne diseases and underscoring the urgency of climate action (SDG 13).

Surveillance, Control, and Future Directions

Effective management of invasive mosquitoes requires robust surveillance and control programs informed by scientific research. These efforts are fundamental to building resilient health systems and sustainable environments.

Monitoring and Research Efforts

Scientific investigation into the ecology and behavior of Ae. albopictus is crucial for developing targeted interventions.

1. Vector Surveillance: Programs monitoring mosquito populations, such as those in recently invaded areas of Spain and UNESCO World Heritage sites like Doñana, are essential for early detection and risk assessment.
2. Ecological Studies: Research on the effects of trap types, host feeding patterns, and the impact of environmental gradients on mosquito community composition provides the evidence base for effective control strategies.
3. Modeling and Analysis: Statistical modeling is employed to understand the complex factors driving mosquito abundance and to identify high-risk areas, thereby optimizing the allocation of public health resources.

Analysis of Sustainable Development Goals in the Article

1. Which SDGs are addressed or connected to the issues highlighted in the article?

1. SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being
   • The article’s references extensively discuss public health risks associated with vector-borne diseases. Titles such as “Autochthonous dengue outbreak, paris region, France” (Ref 5), “Detection of a chikungunya outbreak in Central Italy” (Ref 6), and “Arbovirus surveillance: first dengue virus detection” (Ref 8) directly link to the goal of ensuring healthy lives by addressing communicable diseases. The spread of pathogens like dengue, chikungunya, West Nile virus, and Dirofilaria by mosquitoes (*Aedes albopictus*, *Culex pipiens*) is a central theme, highlighting the direct impact on human and animal health.
2. SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
   • The connection to this SDG is established through references that explore the relationship between urbanization and mosquito populations. For instance, “Urbanization increases Aedes albopictus larval habitats” (Ref 16) and “Effects of landscape anthropization on mosquito community composition and abundance” (Ref 29) show how urban development creates environments conducive to disease vectors. The mention of studies in metropolitan areas like Paris (Ref 5) and Barcelona (Ref 15, 22) and the focus on “urban planning and building design” (Ref 24) underscore the importance of making cities safe and resilient against health threats like disease outbreaks.
3. SDG 13: Climate Action
   • The article links the spread of invasive mosquitoes and the diseases they carry to climate change. The reference “Global distribution of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus in a climate change scenario of regional rivalry” (Ref 3) explicitly addresses how changing climate patterns are expanding the habitats of these vectors, thereby increasing the risk of disease transmission in new regions, such as Europe. This directly relates to the need for action to combat climate change and adapt to its impacts.
4. SDG 15: Life on Land
   • This goal is relevant due to the focus on invasive alien species and their impact on ecosystems. The article begins by citing “100 of the world’s worst invasive alien species” (Ref 1) and repeatedly discusses invasive mosquitoes like *Aedes albopictus* and *Aedes japonicus* (Ref 4, 18). The management and control of these species are crucial for protecting biodiversity. Furthermore, the reference to “Vector surveillance…in Doñana, a UNESCO World Heritage Site” (Ref 21) highlights the threat these invasive vectors pose to protected areas and native wildlife (e.g., through avian malaria), connecting directly to the conservation of terrestrial ecosystems.

2. What specific targets under those SDGs can be identified based on the article’s content?

1. Under SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being
   • Target 3.3: “By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases.” The article’s focus on outbreaks of dengue (Ref 5, 8, 9), chikungunya (Ref 6, 7), and other vector-borne diseases like dirofilariasis (Ref 11, 22, 23) directly aligns with the effort to combat communicable diseases spread by invasive mosquito vectors.
2. Under SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
   • Target 11.5: “By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected…caused by disasters…” Disease outbreaks, such as the dengue and chikungunya epidemics mentioned in the references (Ref 5, 6), can be considered biological disasters. The studies on mosquito abundance in urban areas (Ref 15, 16, 19) are fundamental to mitigating the impact of these health-related disasters on city populations.
3. Under SDG 13: Climate Action
   • Target 13.1: “Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries.” The expansion of mosquito distribution due to climate change (Ref 3) is a climate-related hazard. The surveillance and research activities described in the references contribute to understanding this threat and building adaptive capacity to manage the increased risk of vector-borne diseases.
4. Under SDG 15: Life on Land
   • Target 15.8: “By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species.” The entire body of work referenced revolves around understanding and tracking invasive mosquitoes (*Aedes albopictus*, *Aedes japonicus*) (Ref 1, 2, 4, 18). The research on their distribution, ecology, and vector status is a prerequisite for introducing effective control measures as called for by this target.

3. Are there any indicators mentioned or implied in the article that can be used to measure progress towards the identified targets?

1. For Target 3.3 (Combat communicable diseases)
   • Indicator: Incidence of vector-borne diseases. The article implies this through references that document specific disease outbreaks and cases, such as “Autochthonous dengue outbreak” (Ref 5), “chikungunya outbreak” (Ref 6), and “cases of subcutaneous dirofilariasis” (Ref 22). Tracking the number of new cases of these diseases is a direct measure of progress.
2. For Target 11.5 (Reduce impact of disasters)
   • Indicator: Number of people affected by vector-borne disease outbreaks in urban areas. The studies focusing on disease outbreaks in specific cities like Paris (Ref 5) and Barcelona (Ref 15, 22) imply that a key metric for success in urban resilience is counting and reducing the number of residents impacted by these events.
3. For Target 13.1 (Strengthen resilience to climate hazards)
   • Indicator: Monitoring the geographical distribution of disease vectors. The reference to mapping the “Global distribution of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus in a climate change scenario” (Ref 3) and the “current known distribution” (Ref 2) of these species suggests that tracking their spread is a key indicator of climate-related health risks and the effectiveness of adaptive strategies.
4. For Target 15.8 (Control invasive alien species)
   • Indicator: Implementation of surveillance and control measures for invasive species. The article implies this through multiple references to “Arbovirus surveillance” (Ref 8), “Vector surveillance” (Ref 21), and research on “control options” (Ref 4). The extent and effectiveness of these surveillance and control programs serve as an indicator of the adoption of measures to manage invasive alien species.

4. Summary Table of SDGs, Targets, and Indicators

Source: parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com